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Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification
Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman
In a sentence
This handbook provides a systematic classification and measurement of 24 widely-valued character strengths, organized under six core virtues, creating a 'manual of the sanities' to counterbalance psychology's traditional focus on disorder.
For decades, psychology has expertly mapped human weakness and disorder, but what about the other half of the human condition? 'Character Strengths and Virtues' represents a landmark achievement from the leaders of the positive psychology movement, offering the first comprehensive, scientifically-grounded classification of human goodness. Moving beyond armchair philosophy, Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman identify 24 distinct character strengths—such as courage, kindness, creativity, and hope—and group them under six universal virtues found across cultures and throughout history: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each strength is thoroughly explored, providing its definition, theoretical background, measurement strategies, correlates, and developmental trajectory. This book is not just a classification; it is a foundational text for a new science of human flourishing, providing the vocabulary and tools for researchers, clinicians, educators, and anyone interested in understanding, measuring, and cultivating the best in themselves and others.
The four lenses
- Science
- Statistics
- Systems
- Strategy
The model
This model represents the framework from 'Character Strengths and Virtues,' which posits that 24 distinct character strengths are the psychological components of 6 universal virtues. The model suggests that enabling conditions and deliberate interventions can foster these strengths, and the exercise of these strengths, in turn, contributes to a variety of fulfillments and desirable life outcomes. The character strengths mediate the relationship between developmental/contextual factors and a flourishing life.
Enabling Conditionscontextual condition
Contextual factors and settings, such as family support, safe neighborhoods, educational opportunities, and supportive mentors, that create an environment conducive to the development and display of character strengths.
Creativitypsychological state
Thinking of novel and productive ways to conceptualize and do things; includes artistic achievement but is not limited to it.
Curiositypsychological state
Taking an interest in ongoing experience for its own sake; finding subjects and topics fascinating; exploring and discovering.
Open-Mindednesspsychological state
Thinking things through and examining them from all sides; not jumping to conclusions; being able to change one’s mind in light of evidence; weighing all evidence fairly.
Love of Learningpsychological state
Mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of knowledge, whether on one’s own or formally; related to curiosity but goes beyond it to describe the tendency to add systematically to what one knows.
Perspectivepsychological state
Being able to provide wise counsel to others; having ways of looking at the world that make sense to oneself and to other people.
Braverybehavioral pattern
Not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain; speaking up for what is right even if there is opposition; acting on convictions even if unpopular.
Persistencebehavioral pattern
Finishing what one starts; persisting in a course of action in spite of obstacles; taking pleasure in completing tasks.
Integritybehavioral pattern
Speaking the truth but more broadly presenting oneself in a genuine way and acting in a sincere way; being without pretense; taking responsibility for one’s feelings and actions.
Vitalitypsychological state
Approaching life with excitement and energy; not doing things halfway or halfheartedly; living life as an adventure; feeling alive and activated.
Lovepsychological state
Valuing close relations with others, in particular those in which sharing and caring are reciprocated; being close to people.
Kindnessbehavioral pattern
Doing favors and good deeds for others; helping them; taking care of them.
Social Intelligencepsychological state
Being aware of the motives and feelings of other people and oneself; knowing what to do to fit into different social situations; knowing what makes other people tick.
Citizenshipbehavioral pattern
Working well as a member of a group or team; being loyal to the group; doing one’s share.
Fairnessbehavioral pattern
Treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice; not letting personal feelings bias decisions about others; giving everyone a fair chance.
Leadershipbehavioral pattern
Encouraging a group of which one is a member to get things done and at the same time maintain good relations within the group; organizing group activities and seeing that they happen.
Forgiveness and Mercypsychological state
Forgiving those who have done wrong; accepting the shortcomings of others; giving people a second chance; not being vengeful.
Humility and Modestybehavioral pattern
Letting one’s accomplishments speak for themselves; not seeking the spotlight; not regarding oneself as more special than one is.
Prudencebehavioral pattern
Being careful about one’s choices; not taking undue risks; not saying or doing things that might later be regretted.
Self-Regulationbehavioral pattern
Regulating what one feels and does; being disciplined; controlling one’s appetites and emotions.
Appreciation of Beauty and Excellencepsychological state
Noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performance in various domains of life, from nature to art to mathematics to science to everyday experience.
Gratitudepsychological state
Being aware of and thankful for the good things that happen; taking time to express thanks.
Hopepsychological state
Expecting the best in the future and working to achieve it; believing that a good future is something that can be brought about.
Humorbehavioral pattern
Liking to laugh and tease; bringing smiles to other people; seeing the light side; making (not necessarily telling) jokes.
Spiritualitypsychological state
Having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the universe; knowing where one fits within the larger scheme; having beliefs about the meaning of life that shape conduct and provide comfort.
Desirable Life Outcomesoutcome metric
A set of beneficial outcomes that constitute a well-lived life, including subjective well-being (happiness), competence, health, supportive social networks, satisfying work, and healthy communities.
How they connect
- enabling conditions → influences creativity
- enabling conditions → influences curiosity
- enabling conditions → influences open mindedness
- enabling conditions → influences love of learning
- enabling conditions → influences perspective
- enabling conditions → influences bravery
- enabling conditions → influences persistence
- enabling conditions → influences integrity
- enabling conditions → influences vitality
- enabling conditions → influences love
- enabling conditions → influences kindness
- enabling conditions → influences social intelligence
- enabling conditions → influences citizenship
- enabling conditions → influences fairness
- enabling conditions → influences leadership
- enabling conditions → influences forgiveness and mercy
- enabling conditions → influences humility and modesty
- enabling conditions → influences prudence
- enabling conditions → influences self regulation
- enabling conditions → influences appreciation of beauty and excellence
- enabling conditions → influences gratitude
- enabling conditions → influences hope
- enabling conditions → influences humor
- enabling conditions → influences spirituality
- creativity → predicts desirable life outcomes
- curiosity → predicts desirable life outcomes
- open mindedness → predicts desirable life outcomes
- love of learning → predicts desirable life outcomes
- perspective → predicts desirable life outcomes
- bravery → predicts desirable life outcomes
- persistence → predicts desirable life outcomes
- integrity → predicts desirable life outcomes
- vitality → predicts desirable life outcomes
- love → predicts desirable life outcomes
- kindness → predicts desirable life outcomes
- social intelligence → predicts desirable life outcomes
- citizenship → predicts desirable life outcomes
- fairness → predicts desirable life outcomes
- leadership → predicts desirable life outcomes
- forgiveness and mercy → predicts desirable life outcomes
- humility and modesty → predicts desirable life outcomes
- prudence → predicts desirable life outcomes
- self regulation → predicts desirable life outcomes
- appreciation of beauty and excellence → predicts desirable life outcomes
- gratitude → predicts desirable life outcomes
- hope → predicts desirable life outcomes
- humor → predicts desirable life outcomes
- spirituality → predicts desirable life outcomes
A candidate measure
Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification — derived measurement candidates
Enabling Conditions
Perceived Social Support Scale.; Community crime statistics.; School funding and resource levels.; Indices of democratic freedom.
self-report suitability: medium
Creativity
Consensual Assessment Technique (expert ratings of products).; Lifetime Creativity Scales (self-identified achievements).; Remote Associates Test (RAT).; Unusual Uses Test (divergent thinking).; Creative Personality Scale (self-report).
self-report suitability: high
Curiosity
State-Trait Curiosity Inventory (STCI).; Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS-V).; Need for Cognition Scale (NCS).; Openness to Experience Scale (NEO-PI-R).; Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI).
self-report suitability: high
Open-Mindedness
Paragraph Completion Test (content analysis).; Integrative Complexity scoring of verbal statements.; Argument Evaluation Test (performance task).; Self-report surveys on beliefs about good thinking (e.g., Stanovich & West, 1997).
self-report suitability: medium
Love of Learning
Work Preference Inventory (WPI).; Academic Motivation Scale (AMS).; Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAMI).; Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey (PALS).
self-report suitability: high
Perspective
Performance on wisdom-related life dilemma tasks (e.g., Baltes & Staudinger, 2000).; Q-sort procedures to match personality prototype of a wise person (e.g., Hartman, 2000).; Self-report scales like the Acquired Wisdom Scale or CPI Wisdom Scale.
self-report suitability: medium
Bravery
Interviews about responses to dangerous circumstances.; Narrative responses to hypothetical scenarios.; Case studies of individuals in high-risk professions (e.g., bomb disposal).; Peer nominations of brave individuals.
self-report suitability: low
Persistence
Behavioral measures of time on task for unsolvable puzzles.; Self-report scales of self-control, procrastination, and achievement motivation.; Persistence Scale for Children.; Self-Control Scale (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone).
self-report suitability: high
Integrity
Self-report scales of experienced authenticity (e.g., Sheldon et al., 1997).; Measures of perceived locus of causality (e.g., Ryan & Connell, 1989).; Overt and personality-based integrity tests for employment screening.; Moral Integrity Survey (Olson, 1998).
self-report suitability: medium
Vitality
Vigor-Activity subscale of the Profile of Mood States (POMS).; Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL).; Vitality subscale of the Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36).; Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS).
self-report suitability: high
Love
Strange Situation Test (for infants).; Adult Attachment Interview (AAI).; Self-report attachment style questionnaires (e.g., ECR, RSQ).; Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA).
self-report suitability: high
Kindness
Self-Report Altruism (SRA) Scale.; Altruism facet of the NEO-PI-R Agreeableness scale.; Peer reports of altruistic behavior.; Behavioral observations of helping in experimental settings.
self-report suitability: high
Social Intelligence
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).; Factor-Based Social Intelligence Tasks (Jones & Day, 1997).; Psychological Mindedness Assessment Procedure.
self-report suitability: low
Citizenship
Social Responsibility Scale (SRS).; Youth Social Responsibility Scale (YSRS).; Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS).; Behavioral reports of civic engagement and volunteerism.
self-report suitability: high
Fairness
Standard Moral Judgment Interview (SMJI).; Defining Issues Test (DIT).; Sociomoral Reflection Measure (SRM).; Measures of care reasoning (e.g., Responsive Readers' Guide).
self-report suitability: medium
Leadership
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ-XII).; Leader-Member Exchange Measure (LMX-7).; Managerial Practices Survey (MPS).; Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ).
self-report suitability: high
Forgiveness and Mercy
Forgiveness Likelihood Scale.; Forgiveness of Others Scale.; Transgression Narrative Test of Forgiveness (TNTF).
self-report suitability: high
Humility and Modesty
Proxy measures for its absence (e.g., Narcissistic Personality Inventory).; Discrepancy scores between self-ratings and peer/expert ratings of ability.; Behavioral observation of self-presentational style.; Self-report scales asking about modest behaviors (e.g., VIA-IS).
self-report suitability: low
Prudence
Self-report questionnaires measuring Conscientiousness (e.g., NEO-PI-R).; Measures of impulsivity (reverse-scored).; Measures of future time perspective.; Measures of delay of gratification.
self-report suitability: high
Self-Regulation
Self-Control Scale (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone).; Low Self-Control Scale (Grasmick et al.).; Behavioral measures of delay of gratification.; Measures of ego depletion in laboratory tasks.
self-report suitability: high
Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence
Openness to Aesthetics subscale of the NEO-PI-R.; Self-transcendence subscale of the Cloninger TCI.; Spiritual Transcendence Scale.; Visual Aesthetic Sensitivity Test (VAST).
self-report suitability: high
Gratitude
The Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6).; Gratitude, Resentment, Appreciation Test (GRAT).; Gratitude Adjective Checklist.; Keeping a daily or weekly gratitude journal.
self-report suitability: high
Hope
Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R).; Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).; Dispositional Hope Scale.; Content analysis of verbal material for optimistic/pessimistic themes.
self-report suitability: high
Humor
Coping Humor Scale (CHS).; Situational Humor Response Questionnaire (SHRQ).; Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ).; State-Trait Cheerfulness Inventory (STCI).
self-report suitability: high
Spirituality
Spiritual Well-Being (SWB) scale.; Brief RCOPE (Religious Coping).; Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation Scale.; Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality.
self-report suitability: high
Desirable Life Outcomes
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS).; Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS).; Self-report health status (e.g., SF-36).; Objective performance metrics (e.g., GPA, job promotions).
self-report suitability: high
The story
The reader A researcher, educator, clinician, or intellectually curious individual who is seeking a rigorous, scientific framework to understand, measure, and cultivate the positive aspects of human nature.
External problem
The field of psychology has historically focused on diagnosing and treating illness, providing a comprehensive manual for disorders (the DSM) but no equivalent 'manual of the sanities' for human strengths and virtues.
Internal problem
The reader feels frustrated and limited by the deficit-focused 'disease model,' sensing that it offers an incomplete and pessimistic view of the human condition, and they lack the tools to empirically study or foster well-being.
Philosophical problem
It is fundamentally wrong for a science dedicated to the human mind to neglect what makes life worth living, focusing on fixing what's broken while ignoring how to build what's strong.
The plan
- Learn the VIA (Values in Action) classification system of 6 universal virtues and 24 measurable character strengths.
- Read the detailed chapters on each of the 24 strengths to understand their scientific basis, measurement, and development.
- Utilize the assessment strategies discussed, such as the VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS), to begin identifying and measuring strengths in yourself and others.
Success
- The reader possesses a scientific vocabulary and a toolkit for understanding, measuring, and cultivating human flourishing.
- They can apply this knowledge in research, clinical practice, education, or their own lives to foster character strengths.
- Life is seen not just as the absence of problems, but as the presence of virtues and the pursuit of a meaningful, engaged, and fulfilling existence.
At stake
- The reader remains confined to a problem-focused view of human nature, lacking a systematic framework for understanding or promoting well-being.
- The conversation about character and virtue stays in the realm of rhetoric and opinion, without a scientific foundation.
- The potential for a comprehensive psychology, one that addresses both human weakness and human strength, remains unrealized.
Questions this book answers
- What is character, and can it be broken down into distinct, measurable components?
- Are there universal virtues and character strengths that are valued across all cultures and historical periods?
- How can we scientifically classify and measure positive traits, creating a counterpart to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)?
- What are the causes, correlates, consequences, and developmental trajectories of specific character strengths like creativity, bravery, kindness, and hope?
- How can good character be deliberately cultivated in individuals, schools, and communities?
Glossary
- Enabling Conditions
- Societal, community, and relational factors that create a supportive context for the development and display of character strengths. These include educational and vocational opportunities, safe neighborhoods, political stability, democracy, and supportive relationships with family and mentors.
- Creativity
- Thinking of novel and productive ways to conceptualize and do things. This includes artistic achievement but is not limited to it. It requires both originality and adaptiveness.
- Curiosity
- Taking an interest in ongoing experience for its own sake; finding subjects and topics fascinating; exploring and discovering.
- Open-Mindedness
- The willingness to search actively for evidence against one’s favored beliefs, plans, or goals, and to weigh such evidence fairly when it is available.
- Love of Learning
- A positive motivation to acquire new skills, topics, or bodies of knowledge, whether on one’s own or formally. It goes beyond curiosity to describe a systematic and persistent tendency to add to what one knows.
- Perspective
- The ability to take stock of life in large terms, in ways that make sense to oneself and others. It is the product of knowledge and experience, used to improve well-being and offer sage advice.
- Bravery
- The voluntary act of not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain, despite experiencing fear, in an effort to obtain or preserve a perceived good.
- Persistence
- The voluntary continuation of a goal-directed action in spite of obstacles, difficulties, or discouragement. It involves finishing what one starts and taking pleasure in task completion.
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